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O Level E Maths Tuition Singapore/Tuition O Level E Maths/Tutor

S3 – Teaching Geometrical Properties of Circles

S4 – Revising Vectors in Two Dimensions and practice P2 prelim question

From O-Level Elementary Mathematics Singapore Tutor

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O-Level Additional Mathematics Tuition Singapore

S3 – Teaching Graphs and Application of Straight Line Graphs

S4 – Practice Exam questions focusing on Polynomials and Partial Fractions

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A Level GP/General Paper Tuition Singapore

Values In Science: An Introduction

1. Introduction
A fundamental feature of science, as conceived by most scientists, is that it deals with facts, not values. Further, science is objective, while values are not. These benchmarks can offer great comfort to scientists, who often see themselves as working in the privileged domain of certain and permanent knowledge. Such views of science are also closely allied in the public sphere with the authority of scientists and the powerful imprimatur of evidence as “scientific”. Recently, however, sociologists of science, among others, have challenged the notion of science as value-free and thereby raised questions–especially important for emerging scientists–about the authority of science and its methods.
The popular conceptions–both that science is value-free and that objectivity is best exemplified by scientific fact–are overstated and misleading. This does not oblige us, however, to abandon science or objectivity, or to embrace an uneasy relativism. First, science does express a wealth of epistemic values and inevitably incorporates cultural values in practice. But this need not be a threat: some values in science govern how we regulate the potentially biasing effect of other values in producing reliable knowledge. Indeed, a diversity of values promotes more robust knowledge where they intersect. Second, values can be equally objective when they require communal justification and must thereby be based on generally accepted principles. In what follows, I survey broadly the relation of science and values, sample important recent findings in the history, philosophy and sociology of science, and suggest generally how to address these issues.

2. Values in Science and Research Ethics
The common characterization of science as value-free or value-neutral can be misleading. Scientists strongly disvalue fraud, error and “pseudoscience”, for example. At the same time, scientists typically value reliability, testability, accuracy, precision, generality, simplicity of concepts and heuristic power. Scientists also value novelty, exemplified in the professional credit given for significant new discoveries (prestige among peers, eponymous laws, Nobel Prizes, etc.). The pursuit of science as an activity is itself an implicit endorsement of the value of developing knowledge of the material world. While few would tend to disagree with these aims, they can become important in the context of costs and alternative values. Space science, the human genome initiative, dissection of subatomic matter through large particular accelerators or even better understanding of AIDS, for instance, do not come free. Especially where science is publicly funded, the values of scientific knowledge may well be considered in the context of the values of other social projects.
From the ultimate values of science, more proximate or mediating values may follow. For example, sociologist Robert Merton (1973) articulated several norms or “institutional imperatives” that contribute to “the growth of certified public knowledge” (see also Ziman 1967). To the degree that public knowledge should be objective, he claimed, scientists should value “preestablished apersonal criteria” of assessment. Race, nationality, religion, class, or other personal or social attributes of the researcher should not matter to the validity of conclusions–an ethos Merton labeled ‘universalism’. Merton’s other institutional norms or values include organized scepticism, disinterestedness (beliefs not biased by authority–achieved through accountability to expert peers), and communism (open communication and common ownership of knowledge). As Merton himself noted, these norms do not always prevail. Still, they specify foundational conditions or proximate values that contribute to the development and certification of knowledge in a community. Specific social structures (such as certain reward systems or publication protocols) that support these norms thus form the basis for yet another level of mediating values.
Other proximate or mediating values that promote the ultimate goal of reliable knowledge involve methods of evaluating knowledge claims. These epistemic values include controlled observation, interventive experiments, confirmation of predictions, repeatability and, frequently, statistical analysis. These values are partly contingent. That is, they are derived historically from our experience in research. We currently tend to discount (disvalue) the results of any drug trial that does not use a double blind experimental design. But such was not always the case. The procedure resulted from understanding retrospectively the biases potentially introduced both by the patient (via the placebo effect) and by the doctor (via observer effects). Each is now a known factor that has to be controlled. The elements of process (both methods of evaluation and institutional norms), of course, are central to teaching science as a process.
While the pursuit of scientific knowledge implies a certain set of characteristically “scientific” values, the relevance of other values in the practice of science are not thereby eclipsed. Honesty is as important in science as elsewhere, and researchers are expected to report authentic results and not withhold relevant information. Ethics also demands proper treatment of animals and humans, regardless of whether they are subjects of research or not (Orlans 1993). Science is not exempt from ethics or other social values. Knowledge obtained by Nazi researchers on hypothermia and the physiological effects of phosgene, for example, may pass tests of reliability, but the suffering inflicted on the human subjects was unwarranted (Caplan 1992; Proctor 1991). Hence, we may still debate whether it is appropriate to use such knowledge (Sheldon et al. 1989). Similar questions might be asked about U.S. military studies on the effects of radiation on humans. Again, social values or research ethics are not always followed in science (see, e.g., Broad and Wade 1982), but they remain important values. The disparity between the ideal and the actual merely poses challenges for creating a way to achieve these valued ends–say, through a system of checks and balances. Protocols for reviewing research proposals on human subjects, for monitoring the use and care of laboratory animals, or for investigating and punishing fraud each represent efforts to protect wider social values in science.
The topics or ends of research, as much as the methods or practice of science, are also the province of ethical concern and social values. Weapons research, even if conducted according to Merton’s norms and its results evaluated using scientific standards, is not ethically idle or value-neutral. Nor is research into better agricultural methods aimed to alleviate hunger or low-cost forms of harnessing solar or wind energy in poor rural areas. In each of these cases, the researcher is an ethical agent responsible for the consequences of his or her actions, good or bad. Again, appeal to science is no escape from ethics. Where the consequences are clear, the frequent distinction in science between “pure” and “applied” research is not ethically significant. Many conservation biologists, for example, are well aware of the values inherent in their “basic” research and sometimes shape and deploy the content of their science in a politically self-conscious way (Takacs 1996). Where debates about research arise–say, about transplanting fetal tissue or gene therapy–there are real conflicts about social values; the question of the ultimate value or ethics of research in these areas can neither be resolved by science alone nor disregarded by scientists in these fields as irrelevant.

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A-Level Economics Tuition Singapore/H2/H1 Economics Tuition

Hi J1 H1 Economics Tuition Students

J1 H1 Economics for Academic Year 2013

Topic 2.1 How the Macroeconomy Works
Topic 2.2 Macroeconomic Aims, Problems/Issues, Consequences and Policies

Syllabus
• The Circular Flow of Income
• Sustained rate of economic growth
• Low inflation rate
• Full employment
• Favourable balance of payments

Outcome
• Explain the circular flow of income amongst households, firms, government and international economy.
• Explain the main macroeconomic aims, economic performance and living standards of a country.
• Explain the meaning of a sustained rate of economic growth, real and nominal GDP.GNP per capita, low inflation rate, full employment and favourable balance of payments.

Macroeconomics Lecture 1 : Introduction to Macroeconomics

1.1 What is Macroeconomics?

Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole. The goal of macroeconomics is to explain the economic changes that affect many households, firms, and markets simultaneously. Examples include unemployment, inflation, growth, trade and the gross domestic product.

Macroeconomics focuses on two basic issues.

Issue 1 : Long-run economic growth.

Issue 2 :Fluctuations in economic performance.

Because the economy as a whole is just a collection of many households and many firms interacting in many markets, microeconomics and macroeconomics are closely linked. The basic tools of supply and demand, for example, are as central to macroeconomic analysis as they are to microeconomic analysis.

! Stop and Think : How do macroeconomics issues affect you? Why should you be concerned?

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A-Level Chemistry Tuition Singapore/H2 Chemistry Tuition/JC Chemistry Tutor

Ionic Equilibrium – Concepts

1.
Monoprotic or monobasic acids can donate only one proton. E.g. HCl, HNO3 and CH3COOH

2. Diprotic or dibasic acids can donate two protons. E.g. H2SO4, H2S and H2CO3

3. A Bronsted acid is a proton donor.

4. A strong acid is one that dissociates completely in aqueous solution to give H3O+ ions.
HA (aq) + H2O (l) —> H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)

5. Weak acids only dissociate partially in aqueous solution forming ionic equilibrium systems
HA (aq) + H2O (l) —> H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)

6. Ka provides an accurate measure of the extent to which a weak acid is dissociated.

Ka = [H3O+][A-]/[HA][H2O]

Ka is only affected by changes in temperature

7. A Bronsted base is a proton acceptor.

8. A strong base is one that dissociates completely in aqueous solution to give OH- ions.
B (aq) + H2O (l) —> BH+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

9. Weak bases only dissociate partially in aqueous solution forming ionic equilibrium systems.

B (aq) + H2O (l) —> BH+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Kb = [BH+][OH-]/[B]

Kb is only affected by changes in temperature

10. pH is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of [H3O+]
 pH = – log10[H3O+]

pOH is thus the negative logarithm to base 10 of [OH-]
 pH = – log10[OH-]

pH + pOH = 14

11. Water ionizes itself to a very small extent to give H3O+ and OH- ions.

H2O (l) + H2O (l) —> H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H = +ve
The equilibrium constant for the above system is given the symbol Kw and is known as the ionic product of water.

Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 mol2dm-6 (at 25oC)

As the auto-ionisation of water is an endothermic process, when temperature is increased, equilibrium shifts to the right to absorb the heat. [H3O+] and [OH-] increase by the same amount, Kw increases.

Kw is only affected by change in temperature

12. An acidic/alkaline buffer solution is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a mixture of a weak base and its conjugate acid. It has the property that it resists changes in pH when a small amount of acid or base is added to it.

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A-Level Mathematics Tuition Singapore/JC Maths/H2 Math Tuition and Tutor

Hi A-Level/H2 Math Students

J1 – Teaching Vectors 3

J2 – 30 min Modular Revision on Mathematical Induction, Functions and Graphing Technique.

From A Level Math Tutors

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A-Level Physics Tuition Singapore/H2 Physics Tuition/JC Physics Tutor

Hi A-level/H2/JC Physics Tuition students

Definitions – Oscillation

1. Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is defined as the motion of a particle about a fixed point such that its acceleration a is directly proportional to its displacement x from the fixed point, and is always directed towards that point.

2. Displacement of oscillation
Displacement is the distance in a stated direction of the object from its equilibrium position.

3. Amplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum displacement of the object from its equilibrium position.

4. Phase
Phase is a measure of the fraction of a cycle that has been completed by an oscillating particle or by a wave.

5. Phase difference
Phase difference between two particles along the wave is the fraction of a cycle by which one moves behind the other.
Phase difference between two waves is a measure how much one wave is out of step with another.

6. Period of oscillation
A period is the time taken for one complete oscillation.
Frequency of oscillation
The number of oscillations completed per unit time.

8. Angular frequency
The angular frequency is related to the frequency f of the oscillation by the expression ω = 2πf

9. Damped Oscillation
Oscillations in which the amplitude diminishes with time as a result of dissipative forces that reduces the total energy.

10. Forced Oscillation
Forced oscillations occur when a periodic driving force is applied to a system which is capable of vibration.

11. Resonance
When an oscillator is acted on by a periodic series of impulses having a frequency equal to the natural frequency of the driven oscillator, the driving oscillator transfers its energy to the oscillating system, the energy of the system becomes a maximum and the amplitude of oscillation is a maximum. This phenomenon is called resonance.

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O Level Chemistry Tuition Singapore/Chemistry O Level Tuition/Tutor

Elements, Compounds and Mixtures – Key Points

1. All metals exist as atoms. Most non-metals as molecules, examples hydrogen and oxygen

2. Tap water is a mixture that contains water and dissolved substances such as chlorine and other minerals.

For more key points and exam based questions with full worked solutions please contact Mr Ong @98639833

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O-Level Singapore/O-Level/Physics and Chemistry Tuition/Physics Tuto

Key Points – Forces

F = ma
F = resultant force acting on the body
m = mass of the body
a = acceleration of the body

1. Zero resultant force does not imply that the body is stationary.

2. If resultant force acting on the body is zero, it only implies that the acceleration of the body is zero.

3. Zero acceleration only implies that velocity is constant.

For more key points and exam based questions with full worked solution, please contact Mr Ong @9863 9633

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O-Level Singapore/O-Level/Pure Physics Tuition/Physics Tutor

Key Points – Forces

F = ma
F = resultant force acting on the body
m = mass of the body
a = acceleration of the body

1. Zero resultant force does not imply that the body is stationary.

2. If resultant force acting on the body is zero, it only implies that the acceleration of the body is zero.

3. Zero acceleration only implies that velocity is constant.

For more key points and exam based questions with full worked solution, please contact Mr Ong @9863 9633

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O Level E Maths Tuition Singapore/Tuition O Level E Maths/Tutor

S3 – Teaching Similarity and Congruency, Area and Volumes of similar figures

S4 – Revising simple probability and practice P1 prelim question

From O-Level Elementary Mathematics Singapore Tutor

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O-Level Additional Mathematics Tuition Singapore

S3 – Teaching Graphs and Application of Logarithms Functions

S4 – Practice Exam questions focusing on Surds and Indices

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A Level GP/General Paper Tuition Singapore

Quotations on Science
1 The more the universe seems comprehensible, the more it seems pointless. – Steven Weinberg

2 Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind. – Albert Einstein

3 I do not feel obligated to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, reasons, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use. – Galileo Galilei

4 To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I confess, absurd in the highest degree. – Charles Darwin

5 The scientist who yields anything to theology, however slight, is yielding to ignorance and false pretenses, and as certainly as if he granted that a horse-hair put into a bottle of water will turn into a snake. – H. L. Mencken

6 Science cannot resolve moral conflicts, but it can help to more accurately frame the debates about those conflicts. – Heinz Pagels, The Dreams of Reason

7 There are grounds for cautious optimism that we may now be near the end of the search for the ultimate laws of nature. – Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time

8 The religion that is afraid of science dishonors God and commits suicide. – Ralph Waldo Emerson

9 Science can purify religion from error and superstition. Religion can purify science from idolatry and false absolutes. – Pope John Paul II

10 This world, after all our science and sciences, is still a miracle; wonderful, inscrutable, magical and more, to whosoever will think of it. – Thomas Carlyle

A Level General Paper

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A-Level Economics Tuition Singapore/H2/H1 Economics Tuition

Hi J1 H1 Economics Tuition Students

H1 Syllabus :
• Policies to correct market failure
o Direct Provision
o Taxes and Subsidies
o Tradable Permits
o Rules and Regulations
• Effectiveness of Policies

H1 Learning Outcome :
• Analyse how governments intervene through direct provision of goods and services, imposition of taxes, subsidies, tradeable permits, rules and regulations.
• Discuss the effectiveness of these policies in correcting market failure and their limitations.

Lecture 3 : Market Failure and Public Policy – Part I

3.1 Market Failure from the presence of Externalities

In the presence of externalities, society’s interest in a market outcome extends beyond the well-being of buyers and sellers in the market; it also includes the well-being of bystanders who are affected. Because buyers and sellers neglect the external effects of their actions when deciding how much to demand or supply, the market equilibrium is not efficient in the presence of externalities. In the case of a good with positive externalities, there is an under-allocation of resources to its production. In the case of a good with negative externalities, there is an over-allocation of resources to its production.

3.2 Government Intervention or Public Policies to correct Negative Externalities

Policymakers in the government can respond to negative externalities in one of the following ways.

(a) Taxation

A specific i.e. a fixed amount, is tax is charged per unit sold or produced. Alternatively, an ad valorem i.e. a percentage of the price, tax may be charged for each unit sold or produced.

For complete notes and exam based question with model answers please contact Angie Hp 96790479 or Mr Ong 98639633

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A-Level Economics Tuition Singapore/H2/H1 Economics Tuition

Hi J2 H1/H2 Economics Tuition Students

We are starting a new class on 7th Aug Wednesday 7.45pm to 9.45pm
Lesson will be taught by Bryan Goh

Please contact Angie Hp 96790479 or Mr Ong 98639633 if have more question

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