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GP Overall Structure

GP essays are argumentative essays.

An argumentative essay is different from an expository essay. An expository essay aims mainly to explain a topic. An argumentative essay is one in which the writer attempts to change the minds of his readers by persuasion. The writer takes a clear stand on an issue for which there is no clear answer. Usually, the topic is controversial in nature. The stand is clearly indicated in the THESIS which appears in the introduction of the essay (usually at the end and sometimes, at the beginning or the middle of the paragraph).

An important feature of an argumentative essay is that the writer also shows awareness that there may be others who may not agree with his views and seeks to refute their views by showing how their views are wrong, not as good as his or just as good. Refer to the section on balance for more help in this area.

Let’s be realistic—some considerations from the viewpoint of the marker

Time management: You only have one and a half hours to choose your question, plan a response and write your essay.

Marker’s expectations:

Answering the question you choose
You must ensure that you choose a question you can handle. Seek your tutor’s advice with regard to this.

An essay that does not address the question, however well-expressed, does not get a total mark of more than 22 out of 50.

The basic structure of an essay
The basic expectations you must fulfil are that you show in the given time your ability to craft a basic argument with all the necessary ingredients. Your markers are not expecting you to write copiously—5 to 6 good paragraphs are what most students can produce in the given time. Plan with this in mind.

All in all, ensure that your essay is coherent.

Essay Structure—Coherence

Coherence refers to how the ideas in an essay fit together so well, they form a united whole. In this section, we are interested in exploring how the whole essay “hangs together” such that there is a very obvious and strong argument running through the whole essay.

Coherence is one of the key areas the markers look out for when awarding marks for content (whether the stand taken is argued in a sustained fashion throughout the essay) and for language (whether there is clear paragraphing and inter-paragraph linkage).

One of the most effective ways to ensure that there is coherence in your essay is to address the given question clearly and directly by means of a thesis statement which is followed by topic sentences which are phrased in such a way there is little doubt they are all linked inextricably to the thesis.

The recommended place for the topic sentence is right at the start of each paragraph.

Coherent essays also contain good inter-paragraph linkage. This can be achieved with the use of appropriate connectives (refer to Year 1 GP Package File Page ) and/or the repetition of key words (from the question) and synonyms (related to the key topic). You may even wish to start your topic sentence by introducing a phrase referring back to the previous paragraph:

Eg. While it is true that the use of technology helps a country to achieve economic progress, on a more personal level, it also helps to improve relations between people.

Essay Structure –Some Possibilities

The following may be helpful for your consideration.

Possibility 1:

Paragraph 1: Introduction (Compulsory element: thesis)
Paragraph 2: Topic Sentence 1 highlighting the main idea to be discussed followed by the Explanation, Exemplification and Evaluation
Paragraph 3: As above
Paragraph 4: Refuting your opponent’s most obvious/ most likely/ most significant opposition to your point.
Paragraph 5: Conclusion (Compulsory to restate your thesis)

Possibility 2:

Paragraph 1: Introduction (Compulsory element: thesis)
Paragraph 2: Refuting your opponent’s most obvious/ most likely/ most significant opposition to your point. Start by introducing your opponent’s point and then spend the bulk of your paragraph refuting it. The statement introducing your refutation is Topic Sentence 1.
Paragraph 3: Topic Sentence 2 highlighting the main idea to be discussed followed by the Explanation, Exemplification and Evaluation
Paragraph 4: As above
Paragraph 5: Conclusion (Compulsory to restate your thesis)

Possibility 3:

Paragraph 1: Introduction (Compulsory element: thesis)
Paragraph 2: Refuting your opponent’s most obvious/ most likely/ most significant opposition to your point. Start by introducing your opponent’s point and then spend the bulk of your paragraph refuting it. The statement introducing your refutation is Topic Sentence 1.
Paragraph 3: As above (only this time you may want to introduce the next most likely . . .point.)
Paragraph 4: As above (only this time you may want to introduce the next most likely . . .point.)
Paragraph 5: Conclusion (Compulsory to restate your thesis)

Frankly, this third model can be difficult to sustain and it is often wiser to use a variety of paragraph structures if you wish to add variety to your essay. Do this only if you have a sufficiently good grasp of the basic structure of the argumentative essay. Consult your tutor with regard to your readiness to try out a more varied structure for your essay.

Possibility 4:

Paragraph 1: Introduction (Compulsory element: thesis)
Paragraph 2: Topic Sentence 1 highlighting the main idea to be discussed followed by the Explanation, Exemplification and Evaluation of the point without alluding to any other opinions
Paragraph 3: Refuting your opponent’s most obvious/ most likely/ most significant opposition to your point. Start by introducing your opponent’s point and then spend the bulk of your paragraph refuting it. The statement introducing your refutation is Topic Sentence 2.
Paragraph 4: Topic Sentence 3 highlighting the main idea to be discussed followed by the Explanation and Exemplification followed by Evaluation of the point by alluding to a point raised by the opposition which you then refute.
Paragraph 5: Conclusion (Compulsory to restate your thesis)

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Guide for writing Paper 1

Receiving the Question Paper

Question Selection (5 mins)

a) Identify the topics that you have studied for by looking at the topical terms
i) Do you know current issues pertaining to this topic?
ii) Do you have at least 3 concrete examples?
b) Identify the generic concepts that are familiar to you
c) Identify questions that contain clear assumptions you can address
d) Pick the question that is left!

Starting Out

Sample Question: Has enough been done to score an “A” in General Paper?
1. Perform a detailed question analysis (10 mins)
a) Clarify the key topical terms
i) What are the current issues to do with this term?
ii) What are various understandings of this term?
iii) Are there any examples that can best illustrate this term? [This will be useful in crafting general statements (GSs)]
iv) Is this in line with the key generic concept? [Remember: The topical term ‘Education’ is usually defined by its function because of the generic concept used]
b) Clarify the key generic concept [Revise generic concepts and approaches]
i) What is the approach demanded by the concept?
ii) What must you SHOW to agree/disagree with the question?
iii) Come up with a list of approaches
[Eg. To show that something is ‘enough’: Show that there are limitations to our efforts and that these limitations cannot be overcome within our abilities]
*If there are many requirements, it is likely that the approach has to be carried out between paragraphs. **If there are few requirements, it is likely that the approach has to be carried out within a paragraph.
c) Identify the assumptions
i) Apply the 5W 1H Approach [Use this to guide your generation of GSs]
d) Identify the possible POVs (Stands) you can take
i) What is the variable of the question? [There is usually only one and it is usually the main generic concept]
2. Plan your essay (10 mins)
a) Come up with at least 5 Topic Sentences (TSs)
b) Categorise them into acknowledgements and arguments that prove your ultimate stand
c) List at least 1 example for each TS (ie. it has to illustrate the TS not just something to do with the topic or generic concept used)
d) Organise your TSs beforehand to avoid contradictions.
i) (+, +, +, -, -)
ii) (-, +, +, +, +) etcetera

Writing the Essay

1. Introduction

a) General Statements Deal with the assumptions to highlight the significance of the issue.
Choose one to two ways of showing this:
 Provide a clarification of key terms relevant to the issue/generic concept
 Provide quotes and a following ‘wrap-up’ to link it back to the issue
 Provide examples that illustrate the significance of the issue
 Provide points of view (POVs) and discuss explicitly the significance of the issue
b) Thesis Statement
• Provide an acknowledgement (the view you don’t quite agree with as much)
• Provide your ultimate stand (the view you agree with more)
• Provide some clarification: Why do you not agree as much with the one view? Why do you agree more with another view? What are the conditions you are going to consider?
c) Brief Overview of Arguments
Provide a summary of your TSs.
[Ask: “How am I going to prove my ultimate stand?”]
*If you have a clear thesis statement and you’ve already discussed the significance of the issue quite extensively, this is not needed.

2. Body Paragraphs

a) Topic Sentences
i) Does this provide a reason for your stand?
ii) Have I engaged all the key terms of the question?
iii) Do I have clear transitional phrases to distinguish between my supporting, counter and rebuttal paragraphs?
b) Reasoning
i) Have I explained ‘Why/How/When/For Whom’ something happens?
ii) Can I keep asking why/how/when/for whom?
c) Examples
i) Does the example illustrate the reasoning?
ii) Is the example a concrete one?
(“For example, there are many poor people in China” – is not a concrete example!)
iii) Have I used the key words of the TS to provide coherence?
d) Link back to the TS
i) What have I shown in this paragraph and with the example especially?

3. Conclusion Paragraph

a) Have I summarized the arguments presented earlier?
b) Can I provide an insight or afterthought?
[This provides the (rarely observed in the present moment) conditions that would allow the acknowledgment to be true]
c) Have I reiterated my ultimate stand?

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HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE INTRODUCTION

An Introduction must do two things for the essay: address the concerns (key terms as well as relationship between terms) of the essay question and be interesting.

Generic points
Always state your THESIS/STAND clearly to your reader
Show that you have understanding (by defining) of the nuances/connotations of the terms in question
Display relevant and current background knowledge of the topic
If the topic is too broad (the media), try to delimit the topic by stating the context of your discussion (newspapers and TV)
Give a direction on how the essay will be developed subsequently.

Summary
A good introduction is not beyond the reach of many. It does require a display of enthusiasm on the part of the writer (excitement is contagious!) and a willingness to practice. A final point to remember is that it must FIT the body of the essay so that interest created in the introduction is sustained for the rest of the essay. A good introduction therefore must lead naturally to the details and explanations of your thesis.

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Balance in Essays

What’s the point?

A good argumentative essay always addresses the alternative viewpoints held by people who disagree with the writer. This shows that the writer is mature enough to handle opposition, and intelligent enough to see the issue from different perspectives, even if he does not agree with some of these perspectives. It also allows the writer to refute the opposition, thereby showing the opposing view to be flawed or limited, and strengthening his own position.

Many students often do not see the relevance of including balance in their essays. They argue that even acknowledging the existence of any alternative viewpoint weakens their argument and is therefore not only unnecessary, but also detrimental to their essays. They fail to understand that this is true only when they are unable to handle the necessary task of rebuttal in a competent manner, or when they deliberately choose a very weak opposing viewpoint and then refute it in the belief that this strengthens their argument. It is needless to say that a poor rebuttal does not enhance the argument in any way, and may, in some cases, weaken it. However, using this as an excuse for not dealing with alternative viewpoints is as ridiculous as trying to argue that it is pointless to try to write an essay at all, since there is always a chance the arguments may be faulty. Furthermore, failing to address alternative views shows a lack of intellectual rigour and courage, and makes the writer appear narrow-minded at best, and ignorant at worst. This weakens an argument as much as, or perhaps even more than, a poor rebuttal. Similarly, picking a very weak opposing view simply makes the writer look like an intellectual coward who does not dare to engage with the issues that really matter.

Clearly, the most sensible thing to do is to make sure that the alternative views raised can be addressed adequately in the rebuttal. This requires careful thought and planning, because the key to the challenge of dealing with balance lies in highlighting the right alternative views. On the one hand, the writer has to draw attention to ideas that are significant enough to matter. On the other hand, these alternative ideas cannot be so strong that they become impossible to refute satisfactorily. This is a delicate balancing act that must be thought through very carefully in the planning stages of the essay.

You can refute the opposing view by showing that
1) it is a good point, but so is yours;
2) it is a good point, but yours is better; or
3) it is untrue.

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The Topic Sentence

A topic sentence serves to introduce the topic by stating the subject of the paragraph and the attitude about the topic. Generally, because the topic sentence does introduce the controlling idea of the paragraph, it is a good idea to place it at or near the beginning of the paragraph.

Checklist for a good topic sentence:

• Does it summarise the single main point of your paragraph?
• Does it have a logical and direct relation to the thesis for your essay?
• Does it contain the appropriate connectors / language structures that explicitly tells the reader the link between the current paragraph and the preceding paragraphs?
• Does it have a clear focus on a particular aspect of your topic?
Substantiation

This material is used to support the opinion or attitude expressed in your topic statement. Ask yourself – what must I do to convince the reader that my claim is reasonable / valid / acceptable? Does it back up, clarify, illustrate, explain or prove the point you make in your topic sentence?

Please contact 9863 9633 fir examples on Topic Sentence

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Unity in Paragraph Structure

Good topic sentences that clearly support a clear stand help to create unity in an argumentative essay. Within a paragraph, topic sentences control the development of the ideas. Each sentence in a paragraph should relate to the topic discussed and develop the controlling idea (i.e. that stated in the topic sentence). If any sentence does not relate to or develop that area, it is irrelevant and should be omitted from the paragraph. Consider the topic sentence:

Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit.

If a sentence in this paragraph had discussed how annoying it is to watch someone blow smoke rings, that sentence would have been out of place.

A paragraph that has sentences that do not relate to or discuss the controlling idea lacks unity. Note the following examples of a paragraph that lacks unity:

A paragraph that lacks unity
Another problem facing a number of elderly people is living on a reduced income. Upon retiring, old people may receive a pension from their company or Social Security from the government. The amount of their monthly checks they received when they were employed. Suddenly, retirees find that they can no longer continue the lifestyle that they had become accustomed to, even if that lifestyle was a modest one. Many find, after paying their monthly bills, that there is no money left for a movie or a dinner out. Of course, sometimes they can’t go out because of their health. Maybe they have arthritis or rheumatism and it is painful for them to move around. This can also change their lifestyle. Some older people, however, discover that the small amount of money they receive will not even cover their monthly bills. They realise with horror that electricity, a telephone and nourishing food are luxuries they can no longer afford. They resort to shivering in the dark, eating cat food in order to make ends meet

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The Conclusion

It is important to have a concluding paragraph so as not to leave your entire argument “dangling”. End your essay as neatly as you can. Restate the thesis you laid out in the introduction. Talk about the points you’ve made in the essay and to what conclusion those points ultimately lead. This is a great opportunity to look back over your essay and see whether you met the promise of your thesis.

 Did you discuss all the things you planned to?
 Did you support each point with evidence from the text?
 Finally, did the things you wrote about in your essay point to one ultimate conclusion?

The conclusion is the last chance you have to make your point. Make the piece as memorable as possible. Good luck!

Generic points
• Do not introduce new material
• Draw everything together
• Summarise the main themes
• State your general conclusions
• Set the issues in a broader perspective/wider context
• Make it clear why those conclusions are important or significant (you could link it to speculations for the future, suggestions and predictions but this could be done without too much emphasis given to it)
• Set the issues in a broader perspective/wider context
• In the last sentence, sum up your argument very briefly, linking it to the title

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Grammar Class

The importance of grammar

Englishmen are very particular about language!
Ensures that your ideas are presented clearly
Always check your language!

“To”
– The verb after “to” would also be in the base form
– “To” is used pretty often in GP essays so note its use please*

Modals
Would, could, should, will, can, may
– In GP, we usually use “may” rather than “will” to avoid sounding too absolute and extreme
– The verb after the modal is always in its base form
– What is the base form of “eat”?
– What is the base form of “take”?

The Present Perfect
– GP essays are largely written in present tense or present perfect tense
– The present perfect comes with: present tense + participle (-en/-ed)
– has {developed, improved,
– have {taken, etc
– Exceptions: has gone, has come
– Present perfect is always used with a time frame (e.g. …for many years, …since she was nine). Except when followed by “to” or “that”

Passives
The prisoner were taken (by the guard) to the camp and tortured

Change this to the active form:

The guard took the prisoner to the camp and tortured him The person carrying out the action is clearly stated (i.e. the guard)

Use the active form to present your ideas more clearly

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Essay Example

“The elderly are nothing but a burden to society.” Is this true?

Assumption: The elderly are a burden to society / The elderly are sometimes a burden to society / The elderly are not a burden to society.

Topical term: “elderly”
Who would the “elderly” consist of?
– The United Nations and most developed countries recognise anyone the age of 65 and above as an elderly.
– The elderly in most countries can also be defined by their eligibility to receive pensions.
– In Singapore, the elderly are known as “senior citizens”. At the age of 60, they qualify for public transport concessions.

Be careful: It is more important to think about the elderly in terms of their characteristics – which could make them a burden – rather than their age. Do not be too fixated on defining them in that manner.

Generic term: “nothing but a burden”
This term can also be seen in other questions with a different topic. Generic terms contain the issue of contention in the question. Remember that you must prove the generic term.

Criteria of Proof: “…burden”
Show that the elderly are a liability/vexation/an encumbrance/hindrance and/or do not bring about any benefits/value at all. Show also that society/individuals find it difficult to include the elderly and accommodate them in various aspects because doing so comes at a cost.

Note the absolute in the generic term: “nothing”
Remember that the stand taken in questions with absolute terms is usually “No”.

The words “largely” and “occasionally” are also known as qualifiers. You can use such qualifiers in your essays to lend greater nuance to your answers.

How might the elderly be a “burden”?
Brainstorm using SPERM, CAF or CAL. Some points are given as examples below:

– Physically weaker and slower compared to the younger population, the elderly become a liability due to their inability to contribute physically and even encumbering others as they require others to help them with physically challenging tasks.
– Economically, the elderly are not as productive as the younger working adults. Their old age translate into reduced efficiency, which is detrimental for the economy.
– Furthermore, they are a burden as the younger adults need to support the retired/unemployed elderly financially. This problem is compounded when the elderly are afflicted with a range of illnesses which require expensive treatment and medicine.

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Children – Content

According to the US Bureau of Census, International Data Base, there are 1819 million children in the world who are 15 years and below as of 2000. This makes up 30% of the world’s population. Children are generally vulnerable to the world outside as they are unable to protect themselves and to stand up for their rights. We shall discuss and address the problems and concerns, causes and consequences regarding children in the world today.

Millions of children are exploited for labour. Child labour is defined as children working in economic activity that negatively affect their health and development or interfere with education. An estimated 246 million children are engaged in child labour. About 171 million work in hazardous situations or conditions, such as working in mines, working with chemicals and pesticides in agriculture or working with dangerous machinery. Millions of girls work as domestic servants and unpaid household help and are especially vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. However, research has shown that the vast majority of child labourers – 70 per cent or more – work in agriculture. Few examples of countries with high statistics of child labour would be Sub-Saharan Africa with an estimated 48 million child workers, which means almost one child in three below the age of 15 is working, Latin America and the Caribbean with approximately 17.4 million child workers.

Trafficking children is a global problem affecting large numbers of children. Some estimates have as many as 1.2 million children being trafficked every year. There is a demand for trafficked children as cheap labour or for sexual exploitation.

Children and their families are often unaware of the dangers of trafficking, believing that better employment and lives lie in other countries. Trafficking always violates the child’s right to grow up in a family environment. Large numbers of children are being trafficked in West and Central Africa, mainly for domestic work but also for sexual exploitation and to work in shops or on farms. Nearly 90 per cent of these trafficked domestic workers are girls.

Sexual activity is often seen as a private matter, making communities reluctant to act and intervene in cases of sexual exploitation. These attitudes make children more vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Surveys indicate that 30 to 35 per cent of all sex workers in the Mekong sub-region of Southeast Asia are between 12 and 17 years of age. Mexico’s social service agency reports that there are more than 16,000 children engaged in prostitution, with tourist destinations being among those areas with the highest number. In Lithuania, 20 to 50 percent of prostitutes are believed to be minors. Children as young as age 11 are known to work as prostitutes. Children from children’s homes, some 10 to 12 years old, have been used to make pornographic movies.

Child abuse often come in the form of violence. It is one of the most serious problems affecting children today. Much violence is hidden. Children experience violence at home, within their family and from other children.

Violence pervades the societies within which children grow up. They see it in the media. It is part of the economic, cultural and societal norms that make up the child’s environment. It has its roots in issues such as the power relations associated with gender, exclusion, absence of a primary care giver and societal norms that are not protective or respectful of children. Other factors include drugs, availability of firearms, alcohol abuse, unemployment, crime, impunity and cultures of silence.

Violence can have severe implications for children’s development. In the most severe cases, it can lead to death or injury. However, it can also affect children’s health, their ability to learn or even their willingness to go to school at all. It can lead children to run away from home, exposing them to further risks. Violence also destroys children’s self-confidence and can undermine their ability to be good parents in the future. Children subjected to violence have a heightened risk of depression and suicide in later life. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 40 million children below the age of 15 suffer from abuse and neglect, and require health and social care.

In view of these issues, many organisations and campaigns are set up to help protect the children and to be their voice. Examples would be The United Nations Children’s Fund – UNICEF, Child Workers in Nepal Concerned Centre (CWIN) a pioneer child rights organisation in Nepal, Singapore’s Children Society, lightamillioncandles.com an online website campaign against child pornography. However, the effectiveness of these actions will depend largely on the support given by the public.

“It takes a whole village to raise a child.”
– African Proverb

Everyone has a part to play in protecting the rights of the children.

Situation in Singapore.

Parents who abuse their children physically, psychologically, sexually and neglecting them can be charged up in court. If children are found begging or used for illegal activities are considered ill treated. Employment Act last year to raise the minimum working age for children and young persons from 14 to 15 years. This is in line with a key International Labour Organisation (ILO) convention that restricts the minimum age of children in employment which Singapore has recently ratified in November 2005.

Ministry investigated an average of 188 complaints of alleged child abuse each year. Only in 40% of cases did investigations reveal real evidence of abuse. Granted, the number of cases with evidence of abuse increased by about one and a half times from 61 in 2000 to 90 in 2004. This is due largely to greater awareness among those who have regular contact with children and who reported the incidents to the authorities for intervention.

Number of physical abuse cases has gone down between 2003 and 2004.

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Cults

Intro-The term “cult” is generally used as a hateful snarl word that is intended to intentionally devalue people and the new faith groups that they have chosen to follow. This term often creates dear and loathing among the public. In reality, the only bad deeds of most cults is that they hold different beliefs from the mainstream religions. One example is The church of jesus Christ of latter day saints ( aka Mormon church ). They abonded most of the teachings of jesus and the apostles. They regard themselves as the true Christian church ( which is obviously WRONG lol )

Concern-One of the concerns is that Doomsday/destructive/apocalyptic cults causes the loss of lives. Some in the Anti-cult movemet claim that much of this loss of lives among cult members was the result of a mass suicides orderd by the group leader. This madness is made possible by Cults doing brain-washing techniques. One example would be Heavens Gate. The members were convinced that they would be transported, at death, to a space ship where they would evolve to a higher level of existence.

Concern-have often been targeted by the CCM ( counter cult movement ) and others as mind control cults. Many Child Protection Service workers have raided intentional communities, assuming that child abuse is rampant. These are “live-in” communes, primarily located in rural areas. Their purpose is to promote a specific religious or philosophical belief system. They often isolate themselves from mainstream society. Many of their members enter as young adults. Member’s parents, relatives and friends may become alarmed at their participation in the group. Their concerns are aggravated by lack of information about the group’s beliefs, breakdown of communication between the member and family, misinterpretation of the member’s devotion to the group, alarming information in the media about other unrelated groups which use dangerous mind control techniques.

Governments in U.S vs cults- The most sustained religious oppression was directed at native American spirituality. This can hardly be considered a new religious movement, since its roots go back tens of millennia. However, in terms of loss of life through systematic extermination and direct banning of religious practices, government attacks on Native Americans have been by far the most serious. The guarantees of freedom of religious speech, belief and assembly in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the principle of separation of church and state have otherwise preserved a state of relative religious peace in the U.S. However, there have been conflicts between religious minorities and governments at the federal, state and local level. Examples are, Jehovah Witnesses, Followers of Santeria, Amish and Chrisatian Scientist
Mind control- All religious groups require their members to conform to specific beliefs; they attempt to restrict members’ behaviours to certain norms. But faith groups vary greatly in the level of demands and the degree of control that they maintain over their membership. At the “low control” end might be a congregation of the Unitarian Universalist Association where members are not required to believe in and follow a specific creed. They are encouraged to critically investigate all sources of spirituality for themselves. The role of the congregation is to help each member to develop his or her own ethical and belief systems. The vast majority of the 1,200 or so religious organizations in North America place greater demands on their members than the Unitarian Universalist Association, but in no way can be considered high-demand, mind-control or brainwashing groups. In the more conservative denomination, pressure for the individual to belief is a natural outgrowth of some of their theological beliefs; they often teach that only a select few who trust Jesus as Lord and Savior will be saved the vast majority of humans will spend eternity in Hell This teaching places considerable pressure on the member to believe. Some denominations use the threat of excommunicating or disfellowshipping members in order to enforce conformity. Those members who obtain their entire spiritual, religious, and social support from the faith group frequently find exile to be very disruptive. At the higher end of the spectrum might be a Roman Catholic convent or monastery that requires its members to adhere to a strict schedule of sleep, work and prayer, a limited diet, poverty, celibacy, total acceptance of decisions by those in authority, etc. Next would be actual mind-control groups. These are often small, local, new, Christian groups who make extremely high demands on their members, and are often led by a single charismatic individual. Their total membership is quite small. At the “high demand/control” end would be the destructive doomsday cults which so completely control their members that they have occasionally led many to their deaths through suicide and murder.

Conclusion- Those that should be blamed are the people who wants to join a cult. I feel this way is because we as human beings have the will to judge whether the things we do are right for us. If they refuse to join cults. Cult recruiters cant do much to gain their trust. Also, one other factor that should be blamed is the society we live in. Cults target those that are vunerable in their mind. As a socity that lives together, we sjould help one another to prevent any such things from occurring.

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Science Doesn’t Kill People … People Kill People

Science is the organized systematic pursuit of knowledge. The purposes of science are to explain and manipulate the physical world. Scientific discoveries have greatly aided mankind and have allowed us to manipulate nature to our benefit. A common concern is uncertainty over where science will lead us next. Many scientific discoveries are “irreversible”; once you have them you cannot go back. Therefore it is important to investigate where science is “taking” us so that we can be prepared. At issue as well is the objectivity of science; if science is not objective, then perhaps it can lead us to bad crises or can be steered to good solutions. Because of its potency, like the analogy of a child with a gun, science must be balanced with social responsibility. Despite the fears about science, the overall goal of science is to produce a better world. Scientists feel that by improving our knowledge of nature they can benefit mankind.

Science aims to improve our understanding of the world around us through two modes: explaining and manipulating the world around us. These two functions are not necessarily linked; quantum mechanics can accurately predict experimental outcomes, but it defies explanation. Based upon the two above-mentioned simple goals science would seem to be a relatively benign pastime, but the implications of science can be very potent. Defining the structure of an atom has given us the power to split the atom, producing helpful medical tools and destructive nuclear weapons. A better understanding of gravity has allowed us to put satellites into space allowing better global communication and navigation as well as clandestine spying operations. Because of the value of many scientific discoveries, it is no surprise that some of the most advanced research is funded by armies around the world.

Probably the most important scientific invention ever was agriculture. Agriculture allowed previously nomadic hunters to stay in one place and grow their own crops. This advancement allowed more leisure time, as less time was needed to find food, allowing the division of labour and creation of civilization. Since then, science has brought us sewer systems to reduce disease and allow even greater numbers of people to live together in densities never before possible. Not only are more people now able to live closer together, but their quality of life has increased as well. Life expectancies are rising and disease is becoming less common, seen especially in lower infant mortalities. While some animals have been ob¬served using primitive agricultural techniques, none are as advanced as humans. It is science which separates humans from animals. Science has allowed us to manipulate our environment to allow evolution and fulfilment of our intellectual potentials.

Why does one study science? Einstein described three sorts of motives for scientific research: enjoyment of intellectual power and accomplishment, satisfaction of practical purposes, and a sort of religious follow¬ing. While some might state that Einstein’s motives are out-dated, there still are visibly distinct motives present today. Molecular biologists, among others, have to choose between working in academia, a research park, industry, or even the military. These types of laboratories have very different characteristics and often have different goals as well. The existence of distinct goals in researching science implies that science cannot be truly objective. If science is to be unaffected by bias, it must be studied without bias, a possibility precluded by the studying of science for such ends as intellectual power and accomplishment. While it may vary by a scientist’s personal goals and area of interest, some goals and areas of interest are inconsistent with objective science. Scientists looking for fame might be more disposed to research more controversial issues. Research into aerodynamics or high power energy sources inevitably finds appli¬ca¬tions in military vehicles and weapons. Because the people who perform research have different values, they will inevitably select research which agrees with their values, imparting biases on the scope and possible results of their research.

More…….

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Quotations on Science
1 The more the universe seems comprehensible, the more it seems pointless. – Steven Weinberg

2 Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind. – Albert Einstein

3 I do not feel obligated to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, reasons, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use. – Galileo Galilei

4 To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I confess, absurd in the highest degree. – Charles Darwin

5 The scientist who yields anything to theology, however slight, is yielding to ignorance and false pretenses, and as certainly as if he granted that a horse-hair put into a bottle of water will turn into a snake. – H. L. Mencken

6 Science cannot resolve moral conflicts, but it can help to more accurately frame the debates about those conflicts. – Heinz Pagels, The Dreams of Reason

7 There are grounds for cautious optimism that we may now be near the end of the search for the ultimate laws of nature. – Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time

8 The religion that is afraid of science dishonors God and commits suicide. – Ralph Waldo Emerson

9 Science can purify religion from error and superstition. Religion can purify science from idolatry and false absolutes. – Pope John Paul II

10 This world, after all our science and sciences, is still a miracle; wonderful, inscrutable, magical and more, to whosoever will think of it. – Thomas Carlyle

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Values In Science: An Introduction

1. Introduction
A fundamental feature of science, as conceived by most scientists, is that it deals with facts, not values. Further, science is objective, while values are not. These benchmarks can offer great comfort to scientists, who often see themselves as working in the privileged domain of certain and permanent knowledge. Such views of science are also closely allied in the public sphere with the authority of scientists and the powerful imprimatur of evidence as “scientific”. Recently, however, sociologists of science, among others, have challenged the notion of science as value-free and thereby raised questions–especially important for emerging scientists–about the authority of science and its methods.
The popular conceptions–both that science is value-free and that objectivity is best exemplified by scientific fact–are overstated and misleading. This does not oblige us, however, to abandon science or objectivity, or to embrace an uneasy relativism. First, science does express a wealth of epistemic values and inevitably incorporates cultural values in practice. But this need not be a threat: some values in science govern how we regulate the potentially biasing effect of other values in producing reliable knowledge. Indeed, a diversity of values promotes more robust knowledge where they intersect. Second, values can be equally objective when they require communal justification and must thereby be based on generally accepted principles. In what follows, I survey broadly the relation of science and values, sample important recent findings in the history, philosophy and sociology of science, and suggest generally how to address these issues.

2. Values in Science and Research Ethics
The common characterization of science as value-free or value-neutral can be misleading. Scientists strongly disvalue fraud, error and “pseudoscience”, for example. At the same time, scientists typically value reliability, testability, accuracy, precision, generality, simplicity of concepts and heuristic power. Scientists also value novelty, exemplified in the professional credit given for significant new discoveries (prestige among peers, eponymous laws, Nobel Prizes, etc.). The pursuit of science as an activity is itself an implicit endorsement of the value of developing knowledge of the material world. While few would tend to disagree with these aims, they can become important in the context of costs and alternative values. Space science, the human genome initiative, dissection of subatomic matter through large particular accelerators or even better understanding of AIDS, for instance, do not come free. Especially where science is publicly funded, the values of scientific knowledge may well be considered in the context of the values of other social projects.
From the ultimate values of science, more proximate or mediating values may follow. For example, sociologist Robert Merton (1973) articulated several norms or “institutional imperatives” that contribute to “the growth of certified public knowledge” (see also Ziman 1967). To the degree that public knowledge should be objective, he claimed, scientists should value “preestablished apersonal criteria” of assessment. Race, nationality, religion, class, or other personal or social attributes of the researcher should not matter to the validity of conclusions–an ethos Merton labeled ‘universalism’. Merton’s other institutional norms or values include organized scepticism, disinterestedness (beliefs not biased by authority–achieved through accountability to expert peers), and communism (open communication and common ownership of knowledge). As Merton himself noted, these norms do not always prevail. Still, they specify foundational conditions or proximate values that contribute to the development and certification of knowledge in a community. Specific social structures (such as certain reward systems or publication protocols) that support these norms thus form the basis for yet another level of mediating values.
Other proximate or mediating values that promote the ultimate goal of reliable knowledge involve methods of evaluating knowledge claims. These epistemic values include controlled observation, interventive experiments, confirmation of predictions, repeatability and, frequently, statistical analysis. These values are partly contingent. That is, they are derived historically from our experience in research. We currently tend to discount (disvalue) the results of any drug trial that does not use a double blind experimental design. But such was not always the case. The procedure resulted from understanding retrospectively the biases potentially introduced both by the patient (via the placebo effect) and by the doctor (via observer effects). Each is now a known factor that has to be controlled. The elements of process (both methods of evaluation and institutional norms), of course, are central to teaching science as a process.
While the pursuit of scientific knowledge implies a certain set of characteristically “scientific” values, the relevance of other values in the practice of science are not thereby eclipsed. Honesty is as important in science as elsewhere, and researchers are expected to report authentic results and not withhold relevant information. Ethics also demands proper treatment of animals and humans, regardless of whether they are subjects of research or not (Orlans 1993). Science is not exempt from ethics or other social values. Knowledge obtained by Nazi researchers on hypothermia and the physiological effects of phosgene, for example, may pass tests of reliability, but the suffering inflicted on the human subjects was unwarranted (Caplan 1992; Proctor 1991). Hence, we may still debate whether it is appropriate to use such knowledge (Sheldon et al. 1989). Similar questions might be asked about U.S. military studies on the effects of radiation on humans. Again, social values or research ethics are not always followed in science (see, e.g., Broad and Wade 1982), but they remain important values. The disparity between the ideal and the actual merely poses challenges for creating a way to achieve these valued ends–say, through a system of checks and balances. Protocols for reviewing research proposals on human subjects, for monitoring the use and care of laboratory animals, or for investigating and punishing fraud each represent efforts to protect wider social values in science.
The topics or ends of research, as much as the methods or practice of science, are also the province of ethical concern and social values. Weapons research, even if conducted according to Merton’s norms and its results evaluated using scientific standards, is not ethically idle or value-neutral. Nor is research into better agricultural methods aimed to alleviate hunger or low-cost forms of harnessing solar or wind energy in poor rural areas. In each of these cases, the researcher is an ethical agent responsible for the consequences of his or her actions, good or bad. Again, appeal to science is no escape from ethics. Where the consequences are clear, the frequent distinction in science between “pure” and “applied” research is not ethically significant. Many conservation biologists, for example, are well aware of the values inherent in their “basic” research and sometimes shape and deploy the content of their science in a politically self-conscious way (Takacs 1996). Where debates about research arise–say, about transplanting fetal tissue or gene therapy–there are real conflicts about social values; the question of the ultimate value or ethics of research in these areas can neither be resolved by science alone nor disregarded by scientists in these fields as irrelevant.

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Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is the science of the tiny – the precision engineering of substances at molecular and atomic level. The scale is amazingly small. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter: the width of a human hair is 80,000 nanometers and this industry is manufacturing complex nanomaterials 30 nm wide or less.

Advantages/Benefits

Nanotech is all around you, already: in clothing, electronics, manufacturing and increasingly in health and cosmetics. If you buy a clear sunscreen that promises it blocks ultraviolet light, it is using nano-particles of metals like zinc or titanium – it’s clear because the particles are too small to affect ordinary light. L’Oreal (backed by the food company Nestlé) is marketing anti-ageing cosmetics that exploit the tininess of the particles, ‘nanosomes’, and their ability to penetrate deep into skin cells.

As yet there are officially no foods on sale in Europe that contain nanomaterials, though they exist in the States.

Nano-packaging with ‘self-cleaning’ abilities will be the first application you’ll see – but the science behind that isn’t very different from that in the ‘anti-bacterial’ food containers on sale now. It is with nano-engineered food ingredients that things get mind-boggling. Precisely-engineered nano-scale filters allow you to remove all bacteria from milk or water without boiling. Or take the red out of red wine. Water into oil doesn’t go? Nano-encapsulation technology can already allow you to dissolve as much oil in water, and the other way round, as you wish.

It does this by encasing the water or oil molecules individually in capsules that the liquid will accept. This has enormous implications for altering the fats and salt content of our foods. For cooks, it will turn sauce-making on its head, allowing the emulsification of any two liquids – just for starters, that’s a vinaigrette you won’t have to stir together before pouring. The nano-capsules, 2,000 times narrower than a hair, allow the suspension of almost any substance in clear liquids, without altering their look, or giving any taste.

Future trends

Fancy a programmable drink? Beverage companies such as Kraft are working on prototypes of soft drinks containing nano-capsules that will carry a range of flavours, colours, preservatives or nutrients. You buy the drink and then choose which elements to activate. Your milk carton will tell you when its contents are sour, thanks to particles that sense the gases of decomposition and change colour, and nano-molecules in the ink on the label that tell you how old it is and duly change colour. Kraft and Unilever have products on test.

Atomic-level encapsulation techniques will get more sophisticated. Food processors will offer engineered food catering to your specific tastes, and all sort of options to shoppers. If your chicken is going to sit in the fridge for a while, just activate the nano-encapsulated preservatives held dormant in its flesh. Fancy a fillet with a tarragon-and-butter taste? Trigger a different nano-capsule. Nano-encapsulation could let chefs choose, exactly, how strong a taste or smell should be and when it should be delivered, and design a food’s mouth-feel. The capsule’s casing is to be made of substances ranging from starches, proteins and fats, and can be tailored to break down and release its contents to order. A chef might decide that some flavours in his dish would only be released to the eater a certain number of seconds or minutes after chewing, or when they sip a glass of wine.
Another nano-system to excite cooks uses stable molecules to tie down volatile ones: manufactured starch such as cyclodextrin is being used to bond to those frustratingly evanescent flavours in food – like the fast-fading taste of dill, for example.
Different prospectives
Potential risks of nanotechnology can broadly be grouped into three areas:
• the risk to health and environment from nanoparticles and nanomaterials;
• the risk posed by molecular manufacturing (or advanced nanotechnology);
• societal risks.
There are several potential entry routes for nanoparticles into the body. They can be inhaled, swallowed, absorbed through skin or be deliberately injected during medical procedures (or released from implants). Once within the body they are highly mobile and in some instances can even cross the blood-brain barrier.
How these nanoparticles behave inside the organism is one of the big issues that needs to be resolved. The behavior of nanoparticles is a function of their size, shape and surface reactivity with the surrounding tissue. They could cause overload on phagocytes, cells that ingest and destroy foreign matter, thereby triggering stress reactions that lead to inflammation and weaken the body’s defense against other pathogens. Apart from what happens if non-degradable or slowly degradable nanoparticles accumulate in organs, another concern is their potential interaction with biological processes inside the body: because of their large surface, nanoparticles on exposure to tissue and fluids will immediately adsorb onto their surface some of the macromolecules they encounter. This may, for instance, affect the regulatory mechanisms of enzymes and other proteins.

Situation in Singapore
• Acceptance – NUS Nanoscience and nanotechnology initiative where it is said to be ranked fifth for research papers on this.
• There are industries that deal with nanotechnology being set up here. Eg BASF

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